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E-Mobility Thema's

Electric Mobility Modes

Electric mobility solution should begin with the movement of people and goods rather than with a particular technology.
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Business & Finance

Business and financing arrangements should allocate costs and risks to the actors best able to manage them.
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Integration

Electric mobility produces the greatest benefits when it is integrated with public transport, active mobility, and urban planning.
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Operation

Operational planning should cover the complete system: vehicles, batteries, chargers, grid connections, depots, staff, data, maintenance procedures, emergency response and end-of-life arrangements.
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Policy

Electric mobility requires coordination across transport, energy, environment, industry, finance, trade and urban-development policy.
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Sustainability

Electric mobility should be measured by its real benefits, cleaner air, lower emissions, safer and more accessible transport, not by the number of electric vehicles.
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Electric Mobility Modes

Different vehicles serve different mobility needs. Selecting an appropriate electric mobility solution should begin with the movement of people and goods rather than with a particular technology.

 

Key considerations include daily distance, passenger or freight capacity, route predictability, terrain, climate, vehicle utilisation, charging time, grid availability, purchase price, operating costs, maintenance capacity and user affordability.

 

High-utilisation fleets can be particularly suitable for early electrification because fuel and maintenance savings accumulate rapidly. These may include buses, taxis, motorcycle taxis, delivery vehicles, municipal fleets and shared mobility services. However, electrification should avoid encouraging unnecessary private car use or undermining public transport, walking and cycling.

Electric cars can reduce local air pollution, noise and fossil-fuel consumption, particularly when deployed in high-mileage fleets such as taxis, car-sharing services, municipal fleets and corporate vehicles.
Policies should consider both vehicles and the wider mobility system. Incentives for private electric cars may accelerate market development, but they do not address congestion, road-space consumption or unequal access to mobility. Governments should therefore combine vehicle electrification with investments in public transport, active mobility and shared services.
Implementation measures may include vehicle-efficiency standards, differentiated registration and taxation, fleet targets, charging requirements for buildings, public procurement and support for taxis or shared fleets. Attention is also needed to used-vehicle imports, vehicle and battery standards, electricity tariffs, interoperability and end-of-life responsibilities.
UNEP supports countries in developing electric light-duty vehicle policies, baseline assessments, fiscal and non-fiscal measures, charging strategies and implementation programmes.  
Electric bicycles can extend the range and accessibility of cycling while retaining many of its advantages: low energy consumption, limited use of road space, low operating costs and suitability for short urban trips.
They can support commuting, first- and last-mile connections, tourism, shared mobility and urban freight. Cargo e-bikes are particularly relevant for deliveries in dense areas where vans face congestion, parking constraints and high operating costs.
Infrastructure remains essential. Safe and continuous cycling networks, secure parking, appropriate speed management and integration with public transport are more important than the vehicle technology alone. Shared e-bike systems additionally require robust operations, redistribution, maintenance, payment systems and accessible pricing.
SOLUTIONSplus supported bicycle-sharing and electric bicycle activities in Kigali and electric cargo-bike and light-freight demonstrations in Montevideo. These examples illustrate how electric bicycles can form part of both passenger mobility and urban logistics strategies.
Electric buses can deliver substantial climate, air-quality and service benefits because buses travel long distances, operate in densely populated areas and carry many passengers. Their implementation, however, requires coordinated planning across vehicles, routes, depots, charging infrastructure, electricity supply, contracts and operations.
Route-level analysis should assess daily mileage, gradients, temperatures, passenger loads, dwell times, depot schedules and opportunities for charging. Vehicle and battery specifications should be based on these operating conditions rather than on generic manufacturer data.
Procurement decisions should consider lifetime costs, warranties, battery replacement, charging equipment, grid connections, spare parts, maintenance capacity and service continuity. Depending on local circumstances, cities may purchase buses directly, procure transport services, lease vehicles or batteries, or use mileage-based service models.
In Kigali, SOLUTIONSplus worked with BasiGo and local operators to test electric buses under a mileage-based operating model designed to reduce upfront investment and technology risk. Four buses had travelled more than 51,000 kilometres and carried more than 224,000 passengers by the reported project stage. UNEP separately supports electric bus planning, business models, financing and demonstrations in countries across Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean.  
Motorcycles provide essential mobility and employment in many countries, particularly through motorcycle-taxi and delivery services. Their high annual mileage, intensive fuel use and predictable operating patterns can make them strong candidates for electrification.
Successful business models must address the financial realities of riders. Many drivers do not purchase vehicles outright but rent them, repay them through daily earnings or operate under fleet owners. Leasing, lease-to-own, battery subscription and battery-swapping models may therefore be more suitable than conventional vehicle sales.
Vehicle safety, battery quality, charging or swapping standards, rider training, insurance, maintenance and access to replacement parts must be integrated into programme design. Policies should also avoid creating proprietary battery-swapping systems that lock riders or cities into a single supplier without adequate consumer protection.
In Kigali, SOLUTIONSplus supported electric motorcycle-taxi operations and handed electric motorcycles to a group of women riders. UNEP works with national programmes for electric two- and three-wheelers in countries including Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, Ethiopia, Tanzania, the Philippines, Vietnam, India and Nepal.
 
Electric three-wheelers include passenger tuk-tuks and bajajs, cargo tricycles, small delivery vehicles and other locally adapted vehicle types. They are important in cities where they provide feeder transport, informal public transport, local deliveries and livelihoods.
Their electrification can reduce fuel expenditure, noise and street-level emissions, but implementation must reflect the structure of the sector. Many vehicles are individually owned, informally operated or financed through daily payments. Operators may have limited access to commercial loans and cannot afford long periods without a working vehicle.
Programmes should therefore combine vehicle technology with operator finance, charging or battery swapping, route and demand analysis, registration, safety standards, driver training, maintenance and formal engagement with driver associations.
In Dar es Salaam, SOLUTIONSplus examined the operating characteristics of conventional bajajs and supported the development of locally appropriate electric three-wheeler solutions. In Pasig City, local manufacturers developed compact electric vehicles for municipal and community services, including a prototype using second-life batteries. 
The term electric scooter can refer to standing micromobility devices, seated mopeds or small electric motorcycles. Regulation and infrastructure should clearly distinguish between these vehicle types.
Shared standing e-scooters can provide convenient short-distance connections, but their contribution depends on whether they replace car trips or primarily substitute walking, cycling and public transport. Cities should establish rules for parking, speed, operating areas, fleet sizes, data sharing and the use of public space.
Seated electric scooters can be more suitable for longer journeys and commercial uses. In cities where scooters and motorcycles already account for a large share of travel, electrification strategies should address vehicle affordability, home charging, battery swapping, electrical safety and integration with public transport.
Hanoi’s SOLUTIONSplus demonstration explored shared electric bicycles and two-wheelers as connections to public transport, illustrating the potential to link electric micromobility with wider mobility-system improvements. 
Urban freight includes cargo bicycles, three-wheelers, small delivery vehicles, vans, municipal vehicles and heavy trucks. These vehicles have very different operating requirements and should not be addressed through a single technology pathway.
Urban delivery fleets are often well suited to electrification because they travel regular routes, return to a depot and accumulate high annual mileage. Route optimisation, consolidation centres, loading zones and logistics planning can reduce energy demand before or alongside vehicle electrification.
For heavier trucks, battery size, payload, charging power, grid connections and driver-rest requirements become increasingly important. Early applications may include predictable depot-to-depot routes, port operations, refuse collection and regional distribution.
In Montevideo, SOLUTIONSplus worked with local companies to demonstrate electric cargo bicycles, tricycles and quadricycles. A short logistics test with a delivery platform completed 156 trips and transported 90 packages. In Pasig, locally produced electric quadricycles were tested for public services. UNEP’s Deliver-E initiative focuses on accelerating the electrification of last-mile delivery, particularly two- and three-wheelers. 

Business and Finance

Electric mobility changes how vehicles, energy, infrastructure, and transport services are financed and operated. Higher initial vehicle costs may be offset by lower energy and maintenance expenditure, but these savings do not automatically translate into affordable investment.

Business Models

An electric mobility business model explains who provides the vehicle or service, who pays, how revenues are generated and how technical and financial risks are allocated.

Possible models include direct vehicle sales, leasing, lease-to-own, battery leasing, battery subscriptions, charging as a service, pay-per-kilometre arrangements, fleet rental, shared mobility and service-based public transport contracts.

The most appropriate model depends on vehicle utilisation and user circumstances. A taxi driver who earns and pays daily may require a different arrangement from a municipal fleet or established bus operator. Business models should therefore be developed with users and tested using real operating data.

In Kigali, the mileage-based electric bus model separates vehicle use from some of the risks associated with batteries and charging. Electric motorcycle initiatives have similarly explored vehicle and battery arrangements adapted to motorcycle-taxi operators. SOLUTIONSplus demonstrations in Quito, Montevideo, Kathmandu and Pasig also worked with local companies to develop business models around light electric vehicles and urban logistics.

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Financing Schemes

Financing is often a greater barrier than vehicle technology. Even when an electric vehicle has lower lifetime costs, operators may be unable to obtain affordable capital or accept the perceived risks of a new technology.

Financing assessments should distinguish between the vehicle, battery, charging infrastructure, grid connection, land, software, training and operational working capital. These elements have different lifetimes, risks and potential sources of finance.

Possible instruments include commercial loans, concessional finance, guarantees, leasing, revolving funds, public co-financing, results-based finance and blended-finance facilities. Public support should address identifiable market barriers and help build a self-sustaining market rather than permanently subsidising individual vehicles.

Financiers require credible data on utilisation, operating costs, battery performance, residual values and repayment capacity. Demonstrations should therefore collect data that can support investment decisions and portfolio development. UNEP’s electric mobility programmes combine policy and technical support with work on business models, investment preparation and access to finance. 

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Procurement Guidelines

Procurement can accelerate electric mobility while improving vehicle quality and creating predictable demand. Poorly designed procurement, however, can result in unsuitable vehicles, incompatible charging systems, inadequate maintenance and costly service interruptions.

Specifications should be based on functional and operational requirements. For buses, this includes route distance, passenger capacity, gradients, climate, charging windows and depot conditions. For other fleets, it may include payload, daily mileage, road quality, charging location and expected vehicle life.

Evaluation should extend beyond the purchase price. Total cost of ownership, energy use, warranties, battery performance, maintenance, spare parts, software, data access, training, safety certification and end-of-life responsibilities should all be considered.

Procurement can also encourage local value creation through training, after-sales services and partnerships with local firms. Requirements must remain realistic and should not unnecessarily exclude smaller or emerging suppliers. Where technology and market conditions remain uncertain, phased procurement and monitored demonstrations can reduce risk before larger contracts are awarded.



Integration

Electric mobility produces the greatest benefits when it is integrated with public transport, active mobility, urban planning, electricity systems and digital services. 
An isolated electric vehicle pilot may demonstrate that a technology works,
 but it will not necessarily improve accessibility or reduce congestion. Integration asks how electric mobility contributes to the overall movement of people and goods and how it supports wider environmental, social and development objectives.

Urban Mobility Plans

An integrated plan should identify priority fleets, charging needs, grid implications, responsibilities, financing, implementation phases and measurable outcomes
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Mobility-as-a-Service

Mobility-as-a-Service brings information, booking, payment and potentially subscription-based access to several transport services into a coordinated system.
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Shared Mobility Systems

Shared mobility can increase vehicle utilisation and provide access without individual ownership. Examples include bicycle sharing, scooter sharing, car sharing, and shared municipal fleets.
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Operation

The long-term success of electric mobility depends on reliable daily operation. Vehicle demonstrations may perform well during a short pilot but fail to scale when charging, maintenance, spare parts, software or institutional responsibilities have not been adequately planned.
Operational planning should cover the complete system: vehicles, batteries, chargers, grid connections, depots, staff, data, maintenance procedures, emergency response and end-of-life arrangements

Battery

The battery is a central technical and financial component of an electric vehicle. Selection should reflect the vehicle’s duty cycle, required range, charging pattern, payload, operating temperature and expected lifetime.
Larger batteries are not always better. Oversizing increases cost, weight and material use, while undersizing can reduce operational reliability and accelerate degradation. Battery warranties should define usable capacity, expected cycles, operating conditions and responsibilities for monitoring and replacement.
Governments should establish standards for safety, transport, labelling, repair, reuse and recycling. Battery traceability and extended producer responsibility can help prevent unsafe disposal and clarify responsibility throughout the battery’s life.
Second-life batteries may be suitable for less demanding applications when they are properly assessed and managed. In Pasig, a locally developed electric quadricycle incorporated second-life battery modules supplied through a project partnership. Kathmandu activities included work on lithium-ion technologies, vehicle conversion and local technical capacity.

Maintenance

Electric vehicles generally have fewer moving drivetrain components than combustion vehicles, but they still require structured preventive maintenance and qualified technical support.
Maintenance systems must cover high-voltage components, batteries, power electronics, charging equipment, brakes, tyres, suspension, software and thermal management. Technicians require appropriate training, tools, diagnostic systems and safety procedures.
Procurement and financing arrangements should include spare-parts availability, warranties, service response times and responsibilities for software updates. Local maintenance capacity is particularly important in countries where imported vehicles may otherwise remain out of service for extended periods.
SOLUTIONSplus worked with local manufacturers, universities and technical partners in cities including Kathmandu, Pasig and Montevideo. Local vehicle development and conversion activities provided opportunities to strengthen practical knowledge, servicing capacity and links between manufacturers and operators.

Charging

Charging infrastructure should be planned around vehicle operations rather than installed without a clear use case.
Private cars, buses, motorcycles, delivery vehicles and shared fleets require different charging locations, power levels and operating models. Options include home and workplace charging, depot charging, public charging, opportunity charging and battery swapping.
Planning should consider grid capacity, connection lead times, land availability, electricity tariffs, renewable generation, peak demand, charger utilisation, interoperability, payment systems and accessibility. Shared or public infrastructure should use transparent technical standards and avoid unnecessary supplier lock-in.
In Montevideo, SOLUTIONSplus supported charging infrastructure for light electric vehicles. Kigali demonstrations addressed charging for motorcycles and buses, while a UNEP-supported initiative in Thailand installed battery-swapping infrastructure for electric two-wheelers.

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Policy

Electric mobility requires coordination across transport, energy, environment, industry, finance, trade and urban-development policy.
Individual incentives are rarely sufficient. A coherent policy framework may combine targets, vehicle standards, fiscal measures, public procurement, charging regulation, grid planning, battery rules, industrial development, workforce training and support for public transport and shared mobility.
Responsibilities should be clearly allocated between national, regional and local institutions. Policy development should also involve utilities, operators, businesses, financial institutions, workers and users.

Energy Systems

Transport electrification creates new electricity demand but can also support more efficient and flexible energy systems.
Energy planning should assess when and where vehicles will charge, the power required, the capacity of local distribution networks and the potential for renewable energy. Large bus or truck depots may require substantial grid upgrades, while motorcycles and small vehicles may be served through lower-power charging or battery-swapping networks.
Electricity tariffs should encourage charging at appropriate times without making services unaffordable. Smart charging can reduce peak demand and help use renewable electricity, but it requires compatible equipment, communications and appropriate regulation.
Utilities and energy regulators should be involved early in transport planning. This allows grid investments, charging standards, tariffs and renewable-energy strategies to be aligned with vehicle deployment.

Enviroment

Environmental policy should ensure that electric mobility delivers genuine improvements across the vehicle and battery life cycle.
Electric vehicles eliminate tailpipe emissions, but electricity generation, vehicle production, battery materials, tyre and brake wear and end-of-life treatment still have environmental impacts. These should be assessed transparently and compared with the vehicles and transport systems being replaced.
Policy measures may include vehicle-efficiency requirements, electricity-sector decarbonisation, battery standards, producer responsibility, recycling rules and safeguards for the handling and transport of damaged batteries.
Environmental assessment should also consider wider mobility effects. Electrification that encourages additional car traffic may reduce some emissions while increasing congestion, road construction and material demand. Policies should therefore prioritise efficient vehicles and services and complement public transport, walking and cycling.

Planning

Electric mobility planning converts long-term objectives into implementable actions.
A plan should establish a baseline, assess mobility demand, identify priority vehicle segments, define targets and assign institutional responsibilities. It should map potential charging demand, grid constraints, financing requirements, policy barriers, workforce needs and environmental and social impacts.
Implementation should be phased. Early demonstrations can test technologies, business models and institutional arrangements, but they should be designed from the outset to generate evidence for future investment and policy decisions.
Participatory Living Labs offer one approach. They bring government, businesses, researchers, operators and users together to define problems, co-design solutions, implement demonstrations and assess results. SOLUTIONSplus applied this approach in ten cities and connected the demonstrations with capacity building and replication activities.

Vehicles

Vehicle policy establishes the technical and regulatory conditions for a safe and reliable market.
Relevant measures may include vehicle classification, type approval, homologation, roadworthiness, efficiency requirements, import rules, safety standards, battery requirements and access to registration and insurance.
Regulation should account for emerging vehicle types such as electric cargo cycles, quadricycles and converted vehicles. Applying rules designed solely for cars or conventional motorcycles may prevent appropriate local solutions from entering the market.
Vehicle conversion can extend the useful life of existing fleets and support local industry, but it requires standards for components, installation, inspection, battery safety and certification. Kathmandu’s SOLUTIONSplus activities included diesel-to-electric conversion, remodelling of existing electric three-wheelers and policy work related to vehicle conversion and charging.

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Sustainability

Electric mobility should be evaluated by the benefits it produces, not by the number of electric vehicles deployed.
Relevant outcomes include cleaner air, lower greenhouse-gas emissions, affordable mobility, safer streets, improved accessibility, economic opportunities and more inclusive transport systems. Monitoring should also identify unintended effects such as increased car dependence, unsafe vehicles, unaffordable services or poorly managed batteries.

Air Pollution

Electric vehicles produce no exhaust emissions at the point of use. Replacing heavily used diesel buses, taxis, motorcycles, delivery vehicles and municipal fleets can therefore improve air quality along busy roads and in densely populated areas.
The scale of the benefit depends on the vehicle replaced, its annual mileage, the pollutants it emits and where it operates. Prioritising high-use and high-emitting fleets can produce greater benefits than subsidising low-mileage private cars.
Electric vehicles still generate non-exhaust pollution from tyres, brakes and road wear. Heavy vehicles may produce more tyre wear, while regenerative braking can reduce brake wear. Air-quality strategies should therefore combine electrification with lighter vehicles, public transport, traffic reduction, active mobility and better urban planning.

Economic Sustainability

Economic sustainability requires electric mobility solutions that remain affordable and operational after pilot funding ends.
Assessment should include the full cost of vehicles, batteries, charging, electricity, financing, maintenance, insurance, downtime and replacement. Total cost of ownership is important, but cash flow is equally significant: an operator may be unable to pay a high purchase price even when future operating savings are substantial.
Electric mobility can also create economic opportunities in vehicle assembly, charging, software, maintenance, logistics, battery services and renewable energy. Local value creation does not necessarily require domestic production of every component. It can begin with adaptation, assembly, installation, servicing and business development.
SOLUTIONSplus worked with local businesses in cities including Kigali, Kathmandu, Pasig, Quito and Montevideo. The demonstrations show how international technology cooperation can be combined with local manufacturing, entrepreneurship and operational knowledge.

Climate Change

The climate impact of an electric vehicle depends on its energy use, electricity source, battery and vehicle production, lifetime mileage and the vehicle or journey it replaces.
Electric vehicles generally become more beneficial as electricity systems incorporate more renewable energy. High-utilisation vehicles can achieve substantial lifetime reductions because operational savings are accumulated over many kilometres.
Climate strategies should avoid treating electrification as a substitute for reducing unnecessary vehicle travel. Compact development, public transport, walking, cycling, shared mobility and efficient logistics can reduce energy and material demand while electrification addresses the remaining vehicle activity.
UNEP’s eMob Calculator tools support countries and cities in estimating energy, emissions and economic effects for different vehicle categories, including light-duty vehicles and buses

Gender and Social Inclusion

Mobility systems affect women and men differently because of differences in trip patterns, employment, care responsibilities, personal safety, income and access to vehicles and finance.
An inclusive electric mobility programme should collect gender-disaggregated data and involve diverse users in planning and testing. It should examine whether services are affordable, accessible, safe and available at the times and locations required.
Gender inclusion should extend beyond passengers. Women should have opportunities as drivers, technicians, entrepreneurs, managers and decision-makers. This may require targeted training, finance, recruitment, workplace facilities and measures addressing harassment or discriminatory practices.
In Kigali, SOLUTIONSplus combined vehicle demonstrations with a programme supporting women electric motorcycle riders. Twenty-four electric motorcycles were handed over to participating women, linking fleet electrification with training and employment opportunities.

Safety

Electric mobility must be integrated with a wider road-safety strategy.
Electric vehicles do not automatically make streets safer. Motorcycles, scooters and other small vehicles can expose users to serious collision risks, while larger and heavier cars can increase risks for pedestrians and cyclists.
Programmes should address vehicle construction, braking, tyres, lighting, speed, helmets, driver training and safe infrastructure. Charging and maintenance introduce additional requirements related to electricity, high-voltage systems, battery fires, damaged vehicles and emergency response.
Safe street design, speed management and protection for walking and cycling should accompany vehicle electrification. Public transport electrification can support safety by improving vehicle quality and service reliability, but operational standards and professional driver training remain essential.

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